The rising importance of battery safety in modern buildings and communities

The increasing presence of lithium-ion batteries in our daily lives—from electric vehicles (EVs) to consumer electronics—has brought substantial benefits but also significant safety challenges, particularly in confined environments like parking garages.  With risks like thermal runaway, fires, the release of toxic gases, and at times explosion hazards, understanding battery safety is essential for all building owners, property managers, facility managers and health and safety teams alike, not to mention the communities in which they are located in.

Below, we delve into some key areas of focus, providing a snapshot of recent incidents and consistent lessons learned, to shed light on the critical need for robust battery safety programs.

The fire safety challenge

Lithium-ion batteries are praised for their high energy density and durability, but these features can also contribute to fire hazards. Thermal runaway, a state where internal battery temperatures spike uncontrollably, can lead to fires, explosions, and toxic gas emissions, such as hydrogen fluoride and carbon monoxide – among others.

These compounds pose direct threats to occupants, first responders and surrounding communities. As these batteries become increasingly integrated into residential and commercial buildings and every workplace – it’s crucial to adopt fire prevention and mitigation measures tailored to these unique risks.

Transportation incidents

Lithium battery-related fires are not limited to EVs but are present across various transport and storage applications. For example:

• Montreal shipping container fire (2024): In September, a fire broke out in a shipping container holding 15,000 kilograms of lithium batteries. The incident required specialized fire fighting support and triggered toxic smoke alerts, evacuations and significant community emergency response.
• California highway incident (2024): A truck transporting lithium batteries caught fire on a California highway in July, releasing dangerous gases and causing widespread disruptions.

It’s important to note that these incidents don’t just impact the building and or the occupants within that building, it impacts the community, impacting first responders, forcing evacuations, and larger facilities to “Defend In Place” – creating other challenges to community safety.

For the transportation of lithium batteries, Transport Canada enforces regulations for safe handling, labeling, and packaging to prevent fire risks during transit. The Canadian Electrical Code (CEC) addresses electrical safety for transporting battery-powered devices. In the U.S., the Department of Transportation (DOT) enforces hazardous materials regulations, which categorize lithium batteries under Class 9 hazardous materials. Internationally, IATA and ICAO outline stringent guidelines for air transport of lithium batteries, while the IMDG code mandates fire-resistant packaging for sea transport.

Parking garage fires

Battery fires present a heightened risk in confined spaces like parking garages, where ventilation is limited, and toxic smoke can accumulate rapidly. Several high-profile incidents highlight these unique challenges:

• Incheon, South Korea (2024): An EV fire in an Incheon parking garage prompted the South Korean government to explore better fire fighting strategies around EV charging areas in enclosed spaces.
• Munich, Germany (2021): A fire in an underground parking garage, triggered by an EV battery, revealed the complications of containing flames in confined, poorly ventilated areas, raising awareness around EV battery safety in shared spaces.
• Seoul, South Korea (2023): An EV fire that damaged over 100 vehicles in Seoul led officials to review safety policies, ultimately resulting in new regulations for EV parking in closed environments.

Recently, State Farm, a global leader in risk management, announced it would be removing EV chargers from internal parking areas in its headquarters and across major U.S. hubs. This move underscores a growing concern that fire risks in enclosed spaces may outweigh current mitigation options, or that available mitigation options were unfeasible due to the current building infrastructure.

In Canada, parking garage fires involving EVs are regulated by the National Building Code (NBC) and the National Fire Code (NFC), which set stringent safety requirements for parking structures, including ventilation and EV charging system protocols.

The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) provides guidelines for safe electrical installations in these facilities, while Underwriters Laboratories of Canada (ULC) sets standards like ULC S1001 for integrated fire protection systems and ULC 9540A for thermal runaway testing.

Additionally, NFPA 88A outlines fire safety measures for parking structures, ensuring robust protocols for fire mitigation. Internationally, the International Building Code (IBC) and the International Fire Code (IFC) also cover parking structure safety with provisions for EV-specific concerns, while NFPA 70 (National Electrical Code) offers best practices for EV charging station installations.

Energy Storage Systems

As Energy Storage Systems (ESS) facilities increase in scale and number, so too do the associated fire risks. Here’s an overview of notable ESS incidents that emphasize the need for robust fire safety measures at both the site – and for the community.

• Critical mineral recovery facility (2024): In October, a fire broke out at one of the world’s largest battery processing facilities. The event required community evacuations, underscoring that lithium-ion fires can cause severe impacts not only within facilities but also in the broader community.
• Moss landing energy storage facility, California (2022): Moss Landing, one of the world’s largest ESS facilities, experienced a significant fire in 2022. Although no injuries were reported, the incident caused substantial damage and underscored the vulnerability of large-scale battery installations. The fire led to a thorough examination of battery cooling and containment measures at the facility, as well as improved protocols to prevent thermal runaway.
• Arizona public service (APS), Surprise, Arizona (2019): A serious explosion at APS’s ESS facility injured four first responders. The explosion was traced back to a chain reaction and a violent release of energy. This incident prompted Arizona to overhaul safety standards focusing on ventilation, real-time monitoring, and training protocols for emergency responders.
• Beijing, China (2021): An ESS fire at a grid storage site in Beijing required extensive firefighting efforts. This incident highlighted the challenges of integrating large-scale ESS installations in urban, densely populated areas. The ESS site’s proximity to residential areas raised public concerns and encouraged stricter regulatory scrutiny on site selection, battery type, and fire suppression capabilities for ESS projects within city limits.

ESS are another critical focus area, with ULC 9540 and ULC 9540A providing guidelines for safe installation and thermal runaway testing in Canada. NFPA 855 is the key standard for ESS installation and fire safety, addressing potential hazards and providing comprehensive safety measures. Internationally, NFPA 70E applies to workplace safety involving ESS, while IEC 62619 and IEC 62133 offer safety standards for lithium batteries in industrial storage applications. The UL Fire Safety Research Institute (FSRI) publishes guides such as Mitigating Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage Systems Hazards to provide industry insights.

E-bikes and e-scooters

Recent reports highlight a concerning rise in fires caused by lithium-ion batteries in e-bikes and e-scooters, particularly in New York City. In 2023, the city saw a marked increase in such incidents, with 267 fires resulting in 18 fatalities and over 150 injuries. In response, New York City implemented a lithium-ion battery safety package in early 2023, aiming to mitigate these risks. By mid-2024, these measures had led to a significant drop in fatalities by 92% and injuries by 40% compared to the same period in the previous year, underscoring the effectiveness of enhanced safety regulations.

For Canada, where e-bikes and e-scooters are widely used, these developments highlight the need for similar preventive measures. Canadian municipalities could benefit from adopting proactive safety standards, regular inspections, and increased public awareness to mitigate the risks associated with lithium-ion battery fires. Learning from New York City’s approach provides a model for Canadian cities to enhance their own safety protocols and prevent incidents related to these batteries.

In Vancouver, battery fire safety challenges are also being experienced with Vancouver Fire Rescue Service highlighting in their recent annual report that lithium ion batteries are among the biggest challenges facing firefighters.

Both Toronto and Vancouver Fire Services have significantly increased public safety messaging around proper handling, storage, and charging of these devices, urging users to use manufacturer-recommended batteries and chargers to reduce risks.  In addition, they have released a vast array of educational materials to further enhance awareness in the community.

In Toronto, similar incidents with e-scooter and e-bike batteries have occurred, albeit on a much smaller scale than New York.

• Toronto underground parking fire, 2024:  On October 21, a three alarm fire saw firefighters dealing with blackout visibility due to what initial reports identify as 20 e-bikes on fire. One person was injured, and the cause of the fire remains unknown.
• TTC subway fire, January 2024: An e-bike battery caught fire on a Toronto subway car, resulting in rapid flames and smoke. Fortunately, the fire was quickly contained, but one passenger suffered non-life-threatening injuries. This incident led to increased safety concerns and discussions on e-bike transit usage and fire response measures on public transportation​.
• Residential building fire, October 2023: A fire attributed to an e-bike battery severely damaged a residential building in Toronto. The intense flames and rapid spread highlighted the challenges in controlling lithium-ion battery fires in enclosed residential spaces, drawing attention to the need for fire-safe storage and charging practices in high-density areas.
• Residential building fire, February 2023: A midtown Toronto residential building experienced a fire linked to a charging e-scooter battery, leading to a full evacuation and minor injuries from smoke inhalation.
• Residential building fire, December 2022: A fire in a Toronto high-rise was attributed to a malfunctioning e-bike battery left charging overnight. The fire caused significant property damage but fortunately no injuries.
• Apartment fire, July 2023: Another e-bike battery ignited in a small apartment, leading to severe smoke damage and minor burns for the resident, who tried to contain the fire.

E-bikes and e-scooters are regulated in Canada by Health Canada and CSA standards, adhering to CAN/ULC 2272 and CAN/UL 2849 for fire safety during use and charging. The National Fire Code (NFC) ensures compliance for safe storage and battery charging practices.

Internationally, NFPA 1 (Fire Code) outlines safety practices for storing and using e-bikes and e-scooters. Standards such as UL 2272 and UL 2849 set safety benchmarks for e-scooter and e-bike electrical systems. The IMDG code also includes specific packaging and handling protocols to prevent fire hazards during the transport of these devices by sea

Discussion

Despite the strong regulatory framework and standards governing EV parking and land transportation, some specific areas would benefit from further enhancement to address the evolving needs associated with electric vehicles and lithium-ion battery technology. Fire suppression systems, for instance, are well-established for traditional vehicle hazards, but standards like NFPA 88A and ULC S1001 could be further optimized to address the particular challenges of lithium-ion batteries, such as thermal runaway and associated heat. Current ventilation codes, like those in the National Building Code (NBC) and National Fire Code (NFC), could also benefit from targeted updates to manage the unique gases emitted during EV battery incidents, especially in enclosed or underground spaces where containment is critical.

Training and resources for first responders are another area with potential for growth. Expanded, specialized training focused on EV fires can empower fire services to handle these incidents even more effectively, leveraging their expertise with added insights into EV-specific scenarios. Emergency access infrastructure, meanwhile, could be adapted in certain cases to facilitate faster responses in EV incidents, supporting firefighters in delivering efficient operations when seconds count.

High-density EV charging stations, as found in some modern parking facilities, also introduce unique considerations for safety layout and charging station spacing. Updated guidelines here could offer additional assurance, helping prevent cascading failures and ensuring robust fire barrier protocols. The Canadian Electrical Code (CEC) has thorough standards for EV infrastructure installation, but regular inspection and maintenance protocols could enhance long-term safety, ensuring equipment stays within compliance over time.

The fire risks associated with these areas include rapid fire propagation from thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries, potential toxic gas buildup, and the importance of maintaining well-functioning ventilation in enclosed spaces. High-density charging areas pose an additional risk of simultaneous malfunctions, which can place pressure on fire suppression systems. Enhanced emergency access and ventilation standards will support both first responders and structural integrity, creating safer outcomes for all stakeholders involved.

Case study: Challenges and risks of parking garage fires involving EVs

Parking garage fires involving EVs introduce unique challenges due to the specific hazards associated with EV charging and storage. Imagine an underground parking garage beneath a 42-story high-rise, equipped with 100 EV chargers in simultaneous operation. Vehicles are parked roughly 1.5 feet apart, often next to load-bearing columns. In the event of an EV fire, temperatures can rapidly exceed 1,000 C (1,832 F) within minutes, leading to rapid fire spread, toxic smoke accumulation, and zero visibility. Such extreme conditions could compromise the structural integrity of the building, posing significant risks to both occupants and emergency responders.  It should also be considered that most building’s access the building’s to critical infrastructure is through the parking garage – often on the P1 level, like sprinkler rooms, fire pump rooms and main electrical isolation rooms.  Having zero visibility and intense heat will undoubtedly provide challenges to the emergency response.

Challenges for firefighters
Responding to EV fires in confined underground parking garages presents several challenges for firefighters:

• High temperatures: EV battery fires can reach extreme temperatures, rendering conventional fire fighting methods less effective and requiring specialized equipment.
• Toxic smoke and limited visibility: The quick production of dense, toxic smoke severely impedes visibility, complicating navigation and search-and-rescue efforts.
• Complex suppression requirements: Lithium-ion batteries have a tendency to reignite, necessitating advanced suppression techniques.
• Access and egress: The layout of underground parking garages often restricts access, making it challenging for firefighters to reach the source of the fire and safely exit if conditions deteriorate.

Structural damage risks
The intense heat from EV fires can compromise nearby structural elements, particularly load-bearing columns and beams. Prolonged exposure to such high temperatures can weaken the structural integrity of concrete and steel, endangering the stability of the high-rise above. This risk persists even after the fire is extinguished, often requiring thorough structural assessments and potentially costly repairs.

Visibility and health concerns
The zero-visibility environment created by thick, toxic smoke poses a serious threat to both firefighters and individuals attempting to evacuate. Smoke from burning lithium-ion batteries contains harmful chemicals, escalating health risks and complicating standard evacuation procedures. Limited visibility can disorient emergency responders and hinder their communication.

Challenges to building owners

Under Ontario’s Occupiers’ Liability Act, property owners have a duty to maintain a reasonably safe environment for occupants and visitors. The presence of EV chargers and the associated fire risks necessitate robust safety protocols and regular maintenance. Noncompliance can expose property owners to significant liability. Additionally, the Occupational Health and Safety Act (H&S Act) mandates that employers provide a safe working environment. The risks posed by EV fires, including exposure to extreme temperatures and toxic smoke, place heightened demands on ensuring the safety of both employers operating within the scenario – building staff and firefighters, demanding specific awareness in EV-specific hazards.

Key Risks Identified

1. Rapid fire spread: The potential for fast ignition and flame spread poses containment challenges.
2. Structural integrity: Heat-induced damage to critical structural elements can affect overall building stability.
3. Health risks: Toxic smoke exposure presents immediate and long-term health concerns for responders.
4. Limited egress and accessibility: Complicated access for fire fighting teams due to garage layout.
5. Legal liability: Potential breaches under the Ontario Occupiers’ Liability Act and increased occupational risks under the H&S Act.

EV fires in parking garages represent multifaceted risks impacting firefighter safety, building integrity, and legal obligations. Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive planning, adherence to updated fire codes, and regular training for emergency personnel to effectively manage EV-related incidents.

Training and preparedness for first responders

While both Vancouver and Toronto Fire, are fine examples of innovative departments actively reviewing policies and procedures, information sharing will be a key component when it comes to how to keep both firefighters and the community safe during these events.

This is a complex risk, and we learn something new after every incident, for example, the city of Toronto experienced a notable incident involving a shipment of scooter batteries caught fire, and was extinguished, only to reignited not only three days after the initial fire, and again after 87 days. This is a great example of how we continue to learn and grow. Fire departments across Canada are applying these lessons learned in their own prevention and suppression programs, conducting research and development on special tactics that can be considered, focusing on firefighter safety, the likelihood of secondary events, the areas to consider/focus on within pre-planning strategies, and establish disposal protocols that include suitable containment vessels and guidance for battery owners after an incident.

For building owners, facility managers, and workplace safety officers, integrating battery safety into your existing Workplace Health & Safety Programs, your Fire Code Compliance program and your Emergency Response Plans is a much needed step towards both compliance and minimizing these risks.

As lithium-ion batteries become essential components of modern buildings, powering everything from EVs to energy storage systems, their risks cannot be overlooked. The incidents highlighted here show the reality that battery safety goes beyond compliance; it is a necessary response to emerging risks that can impact not only individual facilities but also entire communities.

Hossam Shalabi is an international fire & explosion expert with over 20 years of engineering experience. Shalabi holds a Ph.D. in Fire Safety Engineering from Carleton University, as well as a Master of Engineering Management from the University of Ottawa, a Master of Fire Safety Engineering from Carleton University, a Certificate in Fire Code Administration from Algonquin College, and a Bachelor of Chemical Engineering from the University of Ottawa.

Jason D. Reid specializes in the integration of Fire Code, Safety & Emergency Management in both critical infrastructure facilities and high-rise buildings. Reid is an active educator and industry specialist, active industry volunteer and recipient of the Government of Canada’s Queen’s Platinum Jubilee Award and the Ontario Volunteer Service Award.